The First Nations of Atlantic Canada: Keepers of the Eastern Shores
The First Nations of Atlantic Canada, including the Mi’kmaq, Maliseet (Wolastoqiyik), Passamaquoddy, and Beothuk, were among the first Indigenous peoples to encounter European explorers and settlers. Living in the rich coastal and forested regions of what is now New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and parts of Quebec, these nations developed societies uniquely suited to their maritime environments. Their cultures were defined by their reliance on the ocean, their extensive trade networks, and their intricate governance structures. This article explores their traditional geographic areas, distinctive cultures before European contact, and the major historical events that have shaped their journey to the present day.
Traditional Geographic Areas: The Eastern Coastline and Interior Waterways
The Atlantic First Nations traditionally occupied territories stretching from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Bay of Fundy and the inland river systems of New Brunswick and Quebec. The Mi’kmaq, the largest of these nations, inhabited the lands of present-day Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and parts of New Brunswick and Quebec. The Maliseet occupied the Saint John River valley, extending into Maine and Quebec, while the Passamaquoddy resided along the Bay of Fundy. The Beothuk, now extinct, once inhabited Newfoundland, relying heavily on coastal resources.
These territories were defined by a mix of coastal and forested environments. The Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, and Passamaquoddy navigated extensive networks of rivers and lakes, using birchbark canoes to travel and trade. Their diets consisted of fish, shellfish, game, and gathered plants, supplemented by agriculture in some regions. The Beothuk, in contrast, relied heavily on marine resources such as seals and fish, living in small bands along the coast.
Historian Daniel P. Paul noted, “The First Nations of the Atlantic region adapted seamlessly to their diverse environment, developing sophisticated strategies for survival, trade, and diplomacy” (We Were Not the Savages, p. 42).
Distinctive Culture and Society Before Contact
Governance and Social Structure
The Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, and Passamaquoddy shared similarities in governance, organizing themselves into regional bands governed by councils of elders and hereditary chiefs. The Mi’kmaq maintained a Grand Council (Sante’ Mawiómi), which oversaw regional governance and decision-making, a system that ensured diplomatic relations between different districts.
The Maliseet and Passamaquoddy also relied on councils, particularly in times of war or negotiation. While leadership was hereditary, chiefs were often chosen based on their wisdom, ability to provide for their people, and diplomatic skills.
Trade and Diplomacy
Trade played a crucial role in the lives of the Atlantic First Nations. Long before European contact, they engaged in extensive trade networks with the Iroquoian and Algonquian nations, exchanging furs, shells, and copper. Wampum belts, crafted from shell beads, were used as both currency and diplomatic tools, symbolizing treaties and agreements.
The Maliseet and Mi’kmaq were also known for their strong alliances, particularly with the Abenaki and other Algonquian-speaking nations of the Northeast. These alliances provided military support and facilitated trade.
Spirituality and Ceremonies
Like other Indigenous nations, the Atlantic First Nations held a deep spiritual connection to the land and sea. Animistic beliefs emphasized the sacredness of all living beings, and ceremonies often sought the guidance of spirits. The Mi’kmaq held seasonal feasts to honour the changing cycles, while the Maliseet conducted rites associated with hunting and fishing.
Shamans, or spiritual leaders, played a key role in healing and maintaining balance within their communities. Oral traditions, passed down through generations, preserved history, teachings, and moral lessons.
Early Contact with Europeans: Exploration and Alliances
The First Nations of the Atlantic were among the first Indigenous peoples to encounter Europeans. Norse explorers may have visited their lands as early as the 11th century, but sustained contact began with the arrival of John Cabot in 1497 and later explorers such as Jacques Cartier and Samuel de Champlain.
Initially, these encounters were marked by trade, particularly in furs and fish. The Mi’kmaq quickly established themselves as key players in the European trade networks, exchanging beaver pelts for metal tools and weapons. This economic partnership provided them with a strategic advantage over rival nations.
The 17th century saw the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet align with the French, forming the Wabanaki Confederacy, which acted as a bulwark against British expansion. Historian W.J. Eccles remarked, “The Mi’kmaq and their allies proved to be some of the most formidable Indigenous warriors in the conflicts of New France” (The Canadian Frontier, p. 73).
The Beothuk, in contrast, had a different experience with European contact. Unlike the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet, they did not establish strong trade relationships with Europeans. Instead, competition over coastal resources led to violent encounters, contributing to their eventual decline by the early 19th century.
The 18th and 19th Centuries: Treaty Negotiations and Changing Economies
The 18th century was marked by treaty-making between the Atlantic First Nations and European powers. The Peace and Friendship Treaties, signed between 1725 and 1779, established terms for coexistence, allowing Indigenous peoples to retain their hunting, fishing, and land-use rights. Unlike treaties in western Canada, these agreements did not cede land but instead focused on diplomatic relations.
Despite these agreements, the expansion of British settlement placed increasing pressure on Indigenous lands and resources. The fur trade declined in importance, and many Atlantic First Nations turned to subsistence hunting and seasonal labour in the growing colonial economy.
The Beothuk, already weakened by disease and conflict, became extinct by the early 19th century. The last known Beothuk, Shanawdithit, died in 1829, marking the tragic disappearance of her people.
The 20th Century: Cultural Revitalization and Political Advocacy
The 20th century brought significant challenges, including restrictions on traditional practices and the imposition of the Indian Act. However, it also saw a resurgence of Indigenous political activism. The Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, and Passamaquoddy were at the forefront of efforts to reclaim treaty rights and self-governance.
Legal victories, such as R. v. Marshall (1999), reaffirmed Indigenous fishing rights, allowing the Mi’kmaq to engage in commercial fisheries under treaty protections. Historian J.R. Miller noted, “The reaffirmation of Mi’kmaq treaty rights in the late 20th century was one of the most significant legal recognitions of Indigenous sovereignty in modern Canada” (Compact, Contract, Covenant, p. 201).
Today, the Atlantic First Nations are leaders in cultural revitalization, environmental stewardship, and economic development. Language preservation programs, traditional crafts, and Indigenous-led enterprises are strengthening their communities.
The history of the First Nations of Atlantic Canada is one of resilience, adaptation, and enduring cultural strength. From their mastery of the coastal environment to their key role in early trade and diplomacy, these nations have played a vital part in shaping the history of Canada. By examining their documented achievements and historical milestones, we gain a deeper appreciation for their lasting legacy.
References
- Paul, D.P. (2000). We Were Not the Savages. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing.
- Eccles, W.J. (1983). The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
- Miller, J.R. (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Ray, A.J. (1974). Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Role as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson Bay, 1660–1870. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.