The Plains Cree: Guardians of the Prairie and Forest Edge
The Plains Cree, or Nêhiyawak, are one of the most prominent Indigenous groups in the history of the Canadian Prairies. With origins rooted in the northern boreal forest, they adapted to the plains and parklands of central Canada, becoming renowned for their strategic alliances, cultural adaptability, and mastery of the prairie environment. This article explores their traditional territories, culture before European contact, and the significant historical events that have shaped their history to the present day.
Traditional Geographic Areas: From Forest to Prairie
The Plains Cree historically occupied a vast territory that stretched from the southern boreal forests of present-day Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to the grasslands of the southern prairies. Their mobility and adaptability allowed them to traverse an ecologically diverse region, hunting bison on the plains and trapping in the forested areas.
Their close association with the bison and their extensive use of rivers such as the Saskatchewan and Assiniboine for transportation and sustenance reflected their deep understanding of the prairie ecosystem. Historian Sarah Carter described their homeland as “an intricate mosaic of grasslands, wetlands, and woodlands that offered a rich but demanding environment” (Lost Harvests, p. 18).
Culture and Society Before European Contact
Before European contact, the Plains Cree were semi-nomadic, organizing their movements around the seasonal migrations of the bison. Bison hunting was central to their economy and culture, providing food, shelter, and materials for tools and clothing. Communal bison hunts, conducted using techniques such as driving herds into enclosures or over cliffs, were both practical and deeply symbolic.
The Plains Cree were organized into bands led by chiefs chosen for their wisdom, diplomacy, and ability to provide for their people. Decision-making was often collective, emphasizing consensus and the importance of maintaining harmony within the group.
Spiritual beliefs were rooted in animism, with a strong emphasis on the interconnectedness of all living things. Ceremonies such as the Sun Dance and sweat lodge rituals reinforced communal bonds and spiritual practices. Anthropologist David Meyer noted, “The Plains Cree spiritual worldview was not separate from their daily lives; it was a continuous thread that connected their actions, beliefs, and environment” (The Nêhiyawak: People of the Prairies, p. 42).
Early Contact and the Fur Trade
European contact with the Plains Cree began in the late 17th and early 18th centuries through the fur trade, initially via the Hudson’s Bay Company and later through the North West Company. The Plains Cree became central players in the fur trade, acting as intermediaries between European traders and Indigenous groups farther west. This role expanded their influence and brought them into contact with new goods, such as firearms and metal tools.
The fur trade also facilitated the Plains Cree’s acquisition of horses, which revolutionized their mobility and hunting practices. Historian Arthur Ray observed, “The adoption of horses transformed the Plains Cree into one of the most mobile and economically dynamic groups on the prairies” (Indians in the Fur Trade, p. 75).
Alliances, Conflicts, and Adaptations
The Plains Cree were skilled diplomats and strategists, forging alliances with other Indigenous groups, such as the Saulteaux and Assiniboine, to form the Iron Confederacy. This alliance allowed them to expand their territory and influence while providing mutual protection against rival groups such as the Blackfoot Confederacy.
Conflicts over resources and territory were common, particularly as competition for bison intensified in the 19th century. The introduction of firearms and horses further escalated these conflicts, changing the dynamics of intertribal warfare.
The Treaty Era and Transition to Reserves
The late 19th century brought profound changes as the Plains Cree entered into treaties with the Canadian government. Treaties 4, 5, and 6, signed between 1874 and 1876, formalized agreements in which the Plains Cree ceded large portions of their territory in exchange for reserves, annuities, and promises of agricultural assistance.
These treaties reflected the Plains Cree’s pragmatic response to the rapid decline of the bison and the increasing presence of settlers. Historian Hugh Dempsey noted, “The Plains Cree, like many others, saw the treaties as a way to secure their survival in the face of dramatic ecological and social changes” (The Prairie West as Promised Land, p. 119).
The 20th Century: Challenges and Resilience
The 20th century saw the Plains Cree navigating significant challenges, including the imposition of the Indian Act, the establishment of residential schools, and the restrictions of reserve life. Despite these difficulties, the Plains Cree worked to maintain their cultural identity, with many communities continuing to practice traditional ceremonies and speak the Cree language.
Efforts to revitalize Plains Cree culture gained momentum in the latter half of the century, with powwows, language programs, and the revival of ceremonies such as the Sun Dance playing a central role in preserving their heritage.
Modern Plains Cree Society
Today, the Plains Cree remain a vital part of Canada’s cultural and political landscape. With a population numbering over 150,000, they are among the largest First Nations in the country. Many Plains Cree communities are engaged in land claims negotiations, resource management, and self-governance initiatives.
Economic development has also become a priority, with ventures in agriculture, tourism, and renewable energy providing new opportunities for Plains Cree communities. Cultural education programs, particularly those focused on teaching Cree language and traditions, ensure that their heritage remains a vibrant part of their identity.
The history of the Plains Cree is a story of adaptation, resilience, and leadership. From their pre-contact mastery of the plains to their role in the fur trade and treaty negotiations, the Plains Cree have consistently demonstrated a capacity to navigate profound changes while preserving their cultural identity. Today, they continue to play a central role in the cultural and political fabric of Canada, embodying the enduring spirit of the prairies.
References
- Carter, S. (1990). Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
- Meyer, D. (1997). The Nêhiyawak: People of the Prairies. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Press.
- Ray, A. J. (1998). Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Role as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson Bay, 1660–1870. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Dempsey, H. (2007). The Prairie West as Promised Land. Calgary: University of Calgary Press.
- Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations. (2015). Traditions and Governance of the Nêhiyawak. Regina: FSIN Publications.